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What are the reasons behind the diverse shapes of galaxies?

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If prompted to depict a galaxy, it is likely that you would generate a spiral configuration such the one depicted above. Spiral galaxies possess significant benefits in capturing our attention, mostly due to their widespread admiration for their exceptional beauty. Additionally, they possess a greater number of attractive young individuals, making them more noticeable unless we properly examine them. Furthermore, one of them is our residence, resulting in an inherent prejudice.

However, not all galaxies exhibit a spiral shape, and even those that do can be classified into two primary categories. Why do certain galaxies get this magnificent configuration while others do not?

There remains a considerable degree of ambiguity around this inquiry; nonetheless, a certain set of explanations appears to be emerging as the prevailing perspective.

Spiral galaxies
Spiral galaxies exhibit a number of shared characteristics. All stars exhibit a relatively flat shape, characterized by a primary body that is significantly wider than its thickness. The disk is characterized by a center bulge that is densely populated with stars, extending both above and below it. Spiral galaxies typically possess a halo that, when regarded as a demarcation, would render them nearly spherical. Nevertheless, the presence of stars in the halo is so rare that it goes unnoticed, even when observing a spiral from a side-on perspective.

Although the spiral structure has received considerable research, its underlying causes remain incompletely comprehended. Partially, it embodies a fallacy. The spiral arms exhibit a significant amount of activity, mostly due to the heightened intensity of star formation inside these regions, resulting in a substantial presence of young, very energetic stars. This enhances the visibility of the arms compared to only observing the density of the material.

Spiral galaxies often have a core that predates their arms, but there are occasional exceptions. This observation implies that the core is believed to have originated earlier and then attracted the material that eventually formed the arms. The formation of large spirals, like in the Milky Way, occurs through the process of cannibalization against nearby smaller galaxies.

Spiral galaxies can be classified based on the degree of arm twisting as well as the number of arms, which can vary.

Remarkably, despite their significance to the cosmos and our own existence, our comprehension of the factors that give rise to spiral galaxy formation remains incomplete. Undoubtedly, we anticipate that the arms will coil securely around the center within significantly shorter timeframes compared to the lifespan of the spirals we are most familiar with. Dark matter accounts for a portion of our observed phenomena, but not all of them.

The disk-like nature of spiral galaxies can be readily elucidated, as a comparable phenomenon can be observed in the protoplanetary disks surrounding nascent stars. It is a result of the gravitational forces acting on particles that are in motion.

The spiral arms possess greater rigidity. The prevailing hypothesis is commonly referred to as “density wave theory.”. This observation implies that stars and dust do not constitute permanent components of arms. Conversely, density waves propagate inside the galaxy, causing the aggregation of matter as a crest traverses and then scattering it. Similar to how a water particle does not consistently occupy the highest point of a wave, stars undergo oscillatory motion within the arms of a wave, undergoing both inward and outward movements.

The exact origin of these density waves remains a mystery, although one possible catalyst could be the gravitational pull of neighboring galaxies disrupting their circular form. There are also suspicions about magnetic fields.

Deciding Whether or Not to Go to a Bar
One of the key distinctions among spiral galaxies is the presence or absence of a central bar, which can be observed in galaxies like our own.

Bars are increasingly prevalent as we approach us in space and time, indicating a rising frequency. Similar to the spiral shapes, it is believed that they are formed by density waves that originate from the galactic center instead of revolving around it.

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The Elliptical Galaxies
Elliptical galaxies are the other general shape that sets them apart, and they are also the biggest galaxies. The form might look like a rugby ball to people in some parts of the world. Americans might like to picture a football that is only slightly compressed and has some of its ends pushed in.

It was Edwin Hubble who first came up with the categories we use today (with some changes). He thought that elliptical galaxies were like an egg in space from which spiral galaxies grew, but this idea has since been disproved. Instead, elliptical galaxies tend to have stars that are much older than those in spiral galaxies because they have stopped making new stars for a long time. It seems that the jets that irregular galaxies’ supermassive black holes make mess up the gas that could form stars in other galaxies.

Some stars move in directions that don’t match those of their neighbors, even in spiral galaxies. Still, the vast majority of stars in spiral galaxies circle in a planned way. It is thought that stars in elliptical galaxies move around a lot less randomly, which makes the shape less stable.

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It is thought that irregular galaxies form when galaxies crash into each other. This is why they are old and don’t have a clear organization. Even though we know the Milky Way is made up of many galaxies, it has kept its shape. Ellipticals happen most often near the center of galaxy groups, which is also where galaxies are most likely to collide and fight. In all the bad things the Milky Way has been through, ellipticals have probably been through even worse.

Getting Messed Up
A lot of galaxies don’t fit into any of these groups, and their forms don’t follow a pattern. It’s easiest to understand these because a regular shape can get messed up when it meets a big force that changes things, like the gravity of a bigger galaxy. The galaxy might eventually come back together, but it may take so much time, especially if it is a smaller galaxy that is vulnerable to damage from larger galaxies, that it will be disorganized for a significant portion of its life.

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How the early universe looked
Galaxy forms that are close to us are easier to study, so that’s where most of what we know comes from. So, these galaxies are about the same age as ours, since we are not looking very far back in time. On the other hand, the JWST has shown us galaxies from when the universe was a lot smaller, and the forms are very different.

A recent report showed that scientists have compared shapes to sports gear, such as balls that are almost spherical and ones that look like frisbees, surfboards, and pool noodles.

Our galaxy’s aged, and we don’t know what happened to them. Even so, since these shapes aren’t common in our world, it seems likely that over time they will change into one of the shapes we see more often.

As Editor here at GeekReply, I'm a big fan of all things Geeky. Most of my contributions to the site are technology related, but I'm also a big fan of video games. My genres of choice include RPGs, MMOs, Grand Strategy, and Simulation. If I'm not chasing after the latest gear on my MMO of choice, I'm here at GeekReply reporting on the latest in Geek culture.

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Astronomy

The PS5 next-gen update for Fallout 4 is now available to be accessed by PS Plus subscribers

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Recently, we reported on the confusion that ardent Fallout fans were having playing the original PS5 version of Fallout 4, which was a result of Amazon’s outstanding adaptation. Individuals who have access to either PS Plus Extra or Premium are now able to upgrade at no cost, as a minor update was released during the weekend.

PSLS has observed that the problem has been resolved, as players are now able to access the next-generation version of the game. Both physical and digital purchasers are eligible for the upgrade, although physical owners will require their discs for the process.

Regrettably, only individuals who obtained Fallout 4 through the now-discontinued PS Plus Collection will be eligible for the upgrade. This decision is consistent with Sony’s current policies, which makes it less unexpected. It is likely that much of the confusion arose because players may have forgotten the precise origin of their digital copy of Fallout 4.

Can you confirm that you can get the PS5 version of Fallout 4 through PS Plus? Talk about how to handle the tricky world of digital rights ownership in the comments section below.

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Astronomy

What is the most terrifying communication that humanity could receive from outer space?

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If there are extraterrestrial civilizations within a reasonable distance capable of detecting our unintentional transmissions, there exists a possibility, albeit small, that among the initial signals they intercept, they could receive the commencement of the 1936 Olympic Games. Therefore, in the unlikely event that they do receive these signals, we might come across a speech by Adolf Hitler during our first encounter with an alien species.

“Naturally, this was not the initial transmission,” clarified Seth Shostak, a senior astronomer at SETI, during an interview with RealClearScience. “However, it was emitted at a sufficiently high frequency to penetrate the ionosphere.”

In the movie Contact, this ultimately became the initial communication that mankind received from an extraterrestrial society. The entities promptly returned the signal to Earth, unaware of the profound consequences that transmitting broadcasts of Adolf Hitler from outer space would have on the targeted species they were endeavoring to establish communication with. It is similar to greeting a random person and then unintentionally reciting a chapter from Mein Kampf.

Fortunately, it is highly likely that we won’t encounter this issue because extraterrestrial civilizations shouldn’t be able to distinguish the signal strengths.

“The power consumption would have been minimal, and the antenna used would not have had a specific direction,” Shostak elaborated. “The notion that extraterrestrial beings might intercept it is highly improbable.”

However, it is possible that we may receive significantly more alarming initial communications, as individuals have been deliberating on X (Twitter) and Reddit.

It appears that people are primarily focused on receiving warnings from extraterrestrial civilizations right now, possibly as a result of a recent unnamed television series.

What would be the scariest message humanity could receive from outer space?
byu/silly_vasily inAskReddit

According to certain proposed resolutions to the Fermi Paradox, which ask why we haven’t detected any signs of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations, the explanation is that these civilizations are intentionally concealing their presence due to the apprehension of their own annihilation.

Another concern is the possibility of receiving an unclear message that extraterrestrial beings will provide us with limited information, apart from the fact that they are en route.

What would be the scariest message humanity could receive from outer space?
byu/silly_vasily inAskReddit

One theory, called the Zoo Hypothesis, is related to this topic. The theory posits that extraterrestrial beings possess knowledge of our existence but deliberately confine us within a designated “zoo” to allow for our evolutionary and societal development. This parallels humanity’s practice of preserving certain areas as nature reserves and refraining from engaging with uncontacted tribes. Based on this hypothesis, it is possible that we may receive contact once we have reached a satisfactory level of technological and societal development and potentially be accepted into a community of other galaxies.

Although there is a prevailing apprehension that initiating communication with an extraterrestrial civilization will probably elicit fear due to humanity’s historical tendency to fear the unfamiliar, there is a potentially more alarming notion.

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Astronomy

Orbex’s recent funding could expedite the launch of its Prime microlauncher into space

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Orbex, a small launch company based in the UK, got more money from backers, including Scotland’s national bank. The company is now getting ready for its first orbital launch, but the date for that mission has not yet been set.

With its start in 2015, Orbex is one of only a few companies in Europe racing to make the next generation of launch vehicles. The retirement of the Ariane 5 and big delays to the Ariane 6 and Vega C rockets have left a huge gap that these companies are trying to fill. Without these vehicles, there is almost no native launch capacity coming out of Europe.

But Orbex also has a chance because of his absence. The company is working on what is sometimes called a “microlauncher.” It is a two-stage vehicle called Prime that is only 19 meters tall and can take up to 180 kilograms of payload. Rocket Lab’s Electron is the most similar. It’s only a meter shorter, but it can take up to 300 kilograms.

The fact that Orbex is small is not a problem for the company. In fact, Orbex CEO Philip Chambers told TechCrunch via email that the company is seeing “positive market conditions” for its product.

“There is a pent-up demand for sovereign launch capabilities,” he said. “We are seeing an exponential growth of satellites being launched into LEO, and demand for launch is far exceeding supply. At the moment, it’s not possible to launch a single kilogram from Europe.” “We will let European customers choose how to launch their own payloads and let them launch European payloads from European soil.”

Prime will take off from a new spaceport being built with money from the UK’s national space agency in Sutherland, which is in northern Scotland. The end goal is to use a patented recovery technique that the company calls REFLIGHT. This is an interstage device that sits between the rocket stages. When the booster comes off, four “petals” will unfold and, along with a parachute, create enough drag for a soft landing in the ocean.

It’s possible that a bigger car will be made in the future, but Chambers made it clear that Prime was the company’s top goal. He did say, though, that many of the rocket’s main technologies could be used with bigger packages.

Considering the laws of physics, it would be logical for Orbex to explore the option of using larger vehicles in order to compete on cost per kg.

The company is starting its Series D round with £16.7 million ($20.7 million) in new funding, including investments from Octopus Ventures, BGF, Heartcore, EIFO, and other contributors. Following the closure of a £40.4 million ($50 million) Series C in October 2022, Orbex has secured additional capital. Although a spokesperson has confirmed that the new funding will assist Orbex in accelerating the development of Prime, ensuring its readiness and scalability for the launch period, the specific launch window has not been announced yet.

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