If you sense that the world is descending into chaos, your intuition is accurate. Whether your observation pertains to politics and society or not, it is undeniable that on the cosmic timescale, order is deteriorating. That is its consistent behavior. But why?

Entropy is referred to as the measure of disorder in a system by physicists. From a scientific standpoint, it is described as the quantification of the energy within a system or process that cannot be utilized for performing tasks. Some people describe it as the level of unpredictability or lack of organization in a system. Regardless of the approach, the outcome remains unchanged.

The second law of thermodynamics affirms that the entropy of an isolated system cannot decrease. Given the dynamic nature of any work being done, it is evident that entropy in a closed system is in a constant state of increase. Given the closed nature of the universe, it follows that its entropy is inevitably increasing.

Exploring the reasons behind this can prompt inquiries into the inherent characteristics of the universe and the potential variations that could have occurred if circumstances had been slightly different. It is uncertain whether this question can be answered at present, and it may remain unanswered indefinitely. However, it is reasonable to suggest that in a hypothetical universe with slightly altered laws of physics, we may discover that our previous assumptions were incorrect and ultimately observe an unavoidable inclination towards disorder.

Arthur Eddington, a renowned physicist known for his groundbreaking confirmation of general relativity, once shared a valuable piece of advice with his students. He believed that the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that entropy always increases, held unparalleled significance among the laws of nature.

If someone were to bring to your attention that your personal theory of the universe contradicts Maxwell’s equations, then it would be unfortunate for Maxwell’s equations. If observation contradicts it, well, experimentalists occasionally make mistakes. If your theory is discovered to contradict the second law of thermodynamics, there is no hope for it. You will have no choice but to face the inevitable humiliation.

This quote continues to be remembered over a century later, as it remains steadfast while other principles of physics from Eddington’s time have fallen.

Understanding the second law
For someone new to the field of physics, understanding the second law of thermodynamics can be challenging. This law is often explained in ways that do not explicitly mention entropy, making it difficult to fully grasp its importance.

One way to explain the law is by stating the seemingly obvious fact that heat naturally moves from a hotter area to a colder one. It is indeed possible to reverse this process. Air conditioners work by cooling down the indoor space, which is typically cooler than the outside environment where the heat is released. However, accomplishing that requires a significant amount of effort, as is evident to anyone who receives their electricity bill after a summer of running the air conditioning.

Understanding the connection between this observation and entropy may not be immediately apparent, but it becomes more evident when we consider the other side of the law: the fact that not all the heat in a system can be converted into useful work in a cyclic process. No engine can achieve complete efficiency in converting heat into other forms of energy, let alone surpass it.

The inefficiency results in increased waste heat, leading to a higher amount of disordered molecules and overall entropy. Just as a biophysicist would observe, an engine has the ability to enhance the organization within a system. However, this improvement comes at the expense of generating additional chaos in its surroundings.

Even though discussions about heat transfer and engine efficiency may appear theoretical, the second law of thermodynamics is a means of expressing a concept that is well-known in other disciplines: nothing comes for free.

If the second law of thermodynamics did not hold true, the concept of free lunches would be applicable to everyone in the universe. It is possible to extract more energy from an operation than what was initially invested. It’s tempting to envision such a scenario, but for many of us, it seems instinctively clear that the universe doesn’t owe us anything, especially not a life without challenges.

There are individuals who do not acknowledge Eddington’s caution. Every year, patent offices and physics departments worldwide are inundated with messages from individuals asserting that they have created a perpetual motion machine. Some of these operate by harnessing the energy emitted by the sun or another external source, which is akin to a free lunch in terms of its availability. Due to the Earth’s interaction with external energy sources like sunlight and cosmic rays from space, which the planet absorbs and emits, these phenomena do not violate the second law of thermodynamics.

Harnessing the power of the sun, nature has been efficiently utilizing incoming energy to promote order on Earth for countless years. While plants and photosynthesizing algae have mastered this process, our solar panels are gradually advancing to keep pace. However, when viewed in a larger context, the increased entropy that the sun produces as a result of molecular fusion to produce heat overshadows any advancements made in fighting disorder.

Building a perpetual motion machine that operates without external energy goes against the second law of thermodynamics. If we were able to create numerous such machines, it would potentially lead to a more ordered universe, contradicting the natural increase of entropy. Many individuals, including renowned physicists, have made numerous attempts.

James Clerk Maxwell, the brilliant mind behind the equations Eddington mentioned, put forth the concept of a tiny entity, later playfully called Maxwell’s demon, which had the potential to create a perpetual motion machine by organizing molecules. It took many years to demonstrate the impossibility of this, even though the field of quantum physics still adds complexity to the matter.

Countless individuals have made bold assertions of triumph in the face of Maxwell’s failure, yet none have truly achieved it. The second law remains unchallenged.

There is a great deal of uncertainty surrounding the ultimate destiny of the universe. There are certain models that suggest the possibility of the second law no longer having absolute control over our existence. At this stage, the most probable outcome for everything to conclude is the rather disheartening “heat death of the universe,” where energy is uniformly dispersed and entropy triumphs over all.

The precise origins of life on Earth remain mysterious, yet we are gradually deciphering the sequential processes and essential components involved. Scientists posit that life originated in a primordial mixture of organic compounds and biomolecules on the early Earth, ultimately resulting in the emergence of living organisms.

There has been a longstanding suspicion that certain ingredients may have originated from outer space. A recent study, published in Science Advances, demonstrates that peptides, a specific category of molecules, can readily form under space conditions, surpassing their formation on Earth. This implies that meteorites or comets could have transported them to the early Earth, and it suggests that life might also have the potential to develop in other locations.

Proteins, which are large and complex carbon-based molecules, sustain the vital functions of life in our cells and those of all living organisms. Our DNA, a complex and substantial organic molecule, controls the process of synthesizing the wide range of proteins required for our survival.

Nevertheless, these intricate molecules are constructed from a diverse range of diminutive and uncomplicated molecules, such as amino acids, which are commonly referred to as the fundamental constituents of life.

In order to elucidate the genesis of life, it is imperative to comprehend the processes and locations in which these fundamental components originate, as well as the specific circumstances under which they autonomously amalgamate into more intricate formations. Ultimately, it is crucial to comprehend the specific process that allows these entities to transform into a restricted, self-duplicating entity—a living organism.

This recent study elucidates the processes by which certain fundamental components may have originated and combined, ultimately leading to their presence on Earth.

Instructions for living
DNA consists of approximately 20 distinct amino acids. Similar to the letters of the alphabet, these components are organized in DNA’s double helix structure in various arrangements to encode our genetic information.

Peptides are a collection of amino acids arranged in a chain-like structure. Peptides can consist of a minimum of two amino acids, but can also extend to hundreds of amino acids.

The process of combining amino acids to form peptides is a crucial step as peptides play a vital role in catalyzing and enhancing essential reactions necessary for sustaining life. These molecules are potential candidates for being assembled into primitive membranes, which would enclose functional molecules within cell-like structures.

Nevertheless, peptides faced challenges in spontaneously forming under the environmental conditions on the early Earth, despite their potentially significant role in the origin of life. Previously, the scientists conducting the current study demonstrated that the frigid conditions of space are actually more conducive to the creation of peptides.

Within the sparseness of molecular clouds and dust particles in the interstellar medium, carbon atoms have the ability to adhere to the surface of dust grains, along with carbon monoxide and ammonia molecules. They react to form molecules similar to those of amino acids. When a cloud becomes denser and dust particles begin to stick together, molecules can come together to form peptides.

In their latest study, the researchers examine the intricate surroundings of dusty disks, where a nascent solar system gradually takes shape, complete with a central star and orbiting planets. These disks are created when clouds rapidly collapse due to the pull of gravity. In this particular setting, water molecules are quite abundant, leading to the formation of ice on the surface of any developing clusters of particles that may impede the reactions responsible for peptide formation.

By simulating the reactions that would happen in the interstellar medium in a lab setting that is completely under control, this study shows that the production of peptides is slightly slowed down but not stopped altogether. As rocks and dust come together to create larger bodies like asteroids and comets, these bodies experience heating and have the opportunity for liquids to emerge. Peptide formation in these liquids is enhanced, leading to a cascade of reactions that give rise to increasingly intricate organic molecules. These processes likely took place during the formation of our own Solar System.

Just imagine that the space environment has the incredible ability to produce essential components of life like amino acids, lipids, and sugars. Several have been found in meteorites.

Peptide formation is remarkably efficient in space compared to Earth, and these peptides can accumulate in comets. As a result, their impacts on the early Earth could have delivered significant loads that greatly accelerated the steps towards the origin of life on our planet.

So what implications does this have for the possibility of discovering extraterrestrial life? It’s fascinating how the fundamental components of life can be found all across the vast expanse of the universe. The level of precision required for self-assembling into living organisms remains an unanswered question. Once we have that information, we can gain insight into the potential prevalence of life.A discussion
Christian Schroeder is a Senior Lecturer in Environmental Science and Planetary Exploration at the University of Stirling.

This article has been republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Please take a look at the original article.

Currently, we are in the midst of the blueberry season, which entails an abundance of delectable blue-colored fruits making their way to our tables. If you have an excess of blueberries that cannot be frozen, baked, or blended, one possible solution could be to transform them into wine. However, a recent study suggests that the extent to which you can maximize the advantages of the wine may depend on the specific method used to produce it.

Blueberries are not only tasty, but they are also regarded as a superfood. Indeed, the term used is primarily for marketing purposes, but these products are rich in essential micronutrients such as vitamins and minerals. In addition, they contain numerous compounds that possess antioxidant properties, which certain scientists believe provide health advantages to individuals who consume them as snacks.

Nevertheless, the University of Córdoba researchers aimed to examine whether the nutritional properties of blueberry wine could be altered through food processing, particularly under varying conditions.

The team utilized blueberries sourced from Huelva, a region in southern Spain. They crushed the blueberries and combined them with a sugar solution, resulting in a total volume of 8 liters of blueberry juice. Subsequently, they introduced yeast into the mixture. An analysis was conducted on the juice to determine the concentration of specific antioxidant compounds, including anthocyanins, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, tannins, and Vitamin C, as well as the overall antioxidant activity.

Subsequently, the juice was evenly distributed into eight separate flasks, which were then divided into two distinct groups: four flasks were placed in a water bath at a temperature of 63°F, while the remaining four flasks were placed in a bath at a temperature of 70°F. Within each bath, two of the flasks underwent partial fermentation, resulting in a sweet wine, while the remaining two flasks underwent complete fermentation, resulting in a dry wine.

By extracting a small quantity of wine from each flask, the team conducted an analysis of antioxidant levels and effectiveness in the wine samples and then compared their findings to the original juice.

The findings demonstrated that the blueberry wine effectively retained certain advantageous properties of the fruit. Irrespective of variations in temperature or fermentation duration, all the produced wines exhibited greater antioxidant activity compared to the initial blueberry juice.

However, it is worth noting that the various conditions did seem to influence the concentration of the distinct antioxidant compounds. Extended fermentation durations resulted in decreased levels of anthocyanins, flavonols, and tannins, while the concentrations of flavan-3-ols actually increased over time.

The temperature also appeared to have an impact, as the wine stored at a higher temperature contained approximately half the amount of vitamin C compared to the wine fermented at a lower temperature.

The study’s findings indicate that the process of making blueberries into wine optimizes the advantages of the fruit, while the temperature and duration of fermentation have a significant impact on the composition of the wine.

They do not specify the taste quality, as taste is more subjective than antioxidant activity.

The research is published in ACS Food Science & Technology.