A novel approach to diamond production eliminates the need for extreme temperatures and pressures, thus making it possible to create diamonds at a significantly reduced cost. The world of precise crystal manipulation, as depicted in the science fiction novel The Diamond Age, may be within reach sooner than anticipated.

Despite our knowledge of synthetic diamond production dating back to the 1950s, the prevailing method still involves subjecting materials to extreme temperatures of 1,300–1,600 °C (2,400–2,900 °F) and applying 50,000 atmospheres of pressure for a period of 5–12 days. This has been instrumental in meeting the industrial demand for diamonds as cutting instruments while also offering unique colors for those with a preference for rare hues. Nevertheless, the expense of the procedure is comparable to that of discovering natural diamonds, whether for industrial use or as high-quality gemstones, which allows the mining industry to persist.

There might be a significant shift on the horizon as a method to produce diamonds under normal atmospheric pressure has been unveiled. The temperatures remain high at 1,025 °C (1,877 °F), but even at this level, significant savings can be achieved compared to the current heat requirements.

Low-pressure diamonds were once considered a paradoxical concept. Natural diamonds form deep within the Earth’s mantle under immense pressure from layers of crust above, and many of them were created long before complex life forms existed. The synthetic version utilizes liquid metal catalysts, but high pressures in the gigapascal range are still deemed necessary.

Nevertheless, scientists at Korea’s Institute for Basic Science have challenged this notion by demonstrating that diamonds can be grown using a liquid metal alloy of gallium, iron, nickel, and silicon, even without applying significant pressure in a hydrogen/methane atmosphere. The carbon in the diamond is derived from methane.

“This groundbreaking achievement was made possible through human creativity, persistent dedication, and the collaborative efforts of numerous contributors,” Professor Rod Ruoff stated. He omitted a significant amount of trial and error, which the team at the Institute employed while fine-tuning the combination of metals and other variables. When the team switched to a smaller chamber, they were able to make real progress in a surprisingly short amount of time, even though making the diamond itself was a quick process.

After extensive research, it was discovered that the diamonds tend to form at the lower part of the liquid alloy consisting of 77.75 percent gallium, 0.25 percent silicon, and 11 percent each of iron and nickel. It’s not a ratio that comes to mind right away. In addition, seed particles are not necessary for the production of these synthetic diamonds, unlike traditional methods.

“One day, when I conducted the experiment, subsequently cooled the graphite crucible to solidify the liquid metal, and extracted the solidified piece, I observed a fascinating pattern resembling a rainbow that extended over a few millimeters on the bottom surface of this piece,” shared graduate student Yan Gong. “We discovered that the colors of the rainbow are caused by diamonds!”

The process typically takes around 10 to 15 minutes to initiate diamond formation, with growth ceasing after approximately 150 minutes. However, the team is actively exploring methods to address this limitation.

The diamonds produced thus far are of a smaller size, resembling a film rather than a precious gemstone. As a result, diamond companies do not need to be overly concerned at this point. That could potentially change if scientists discover ways to enhance the supersaturated carbon layer that comes before the formation of diamonds. The silicon vacancy, which is highly sought after for creating colored diamonds, can also be created by nitrogen impurities. This characteristic makes these diamonds perfect for conducting experiments in the field of quantum computing.

The exact reasons behind the desired outcome of this particular combination of metals and gases remain a subject of ongoing investigation. The resemblance between silicon and carbon bonds is believed to play a crucial role. It is possible that carbon clusters containing silicon atoms could act as precursors to diamonds.

Mass production rarely relies on the initial iteration of a process demonstrated in a laboratory. According to Ruoff, there are several lower melting point metals that could be beneficial in terms of cost reduction or in creating diamonds with specific shades or properties.

The study has been published in the prestigious journal Nature.

There is a significant shift taking place in the way we generate electricity, even in the areas where it faces strong opposition. Texas is a prime example of the remarkable progress in renewable power, with continuous record-breaking achievements despite facing opposition from influential individuals.

In February 2021, a severe cold snap placed immense strain on the Texas electricity grid, resulting in extensive blackouts that tragically resulted in the loss of life and brought the region perilously close to catastrophe. As expected, certain individuals quickly pointed fingers at wind power as the cause of the issues, despite the fact that the majority of the capacity loss occurred in gas-fired power stations. They were, however, accompanied by a large number of influential Texas politicians, including the governor, which strongly suggested that they would favor continuously operating energy sources.

Instead, there has been a remarkable increase in the installation of photovoltaic panels since then. In March, solar power surpassed coal as the leading source of electricity in Texas, marking a significant milestone.

According to the Institute for Energy Economic and Financial Analysis (IEEFA), the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT), the main power grid for most Texans, used a significant amount of solar-generated electricity in March. The total consumption reached 3.26 million megawatt hours (MWh). In comparison, 2.96 million MWh were generated from coal, making the difference approximately 10 percent.

In March, solar production experienced a significant increase of 56 percent compared to the previous year. This growth was three times higher than the March that occurred after the devastating freeze.

IEEFA highlights a series of significant achievements. In March, solar energy accounted for over 10 percent of ERCOT’s electricity generation, marking a significant milestone. At the same time, coal’s contribution fell below 10 percent for the first time.

Even in January, solar power played a crucial role in preventing a system meltdown during a cold snap by meeting nearly a quarter of the demand in the middle of the day.

The records will continue to be broken. By the end of the year, Texas is projected to add over 7 gigawatts (GW) of solar capacity to its grid, representing a nearly 30% increase from current levels. Despite potentially less favorable weather conditions, next March is expected to bring even more significant growth in solar energy. Exciting developments are in the works for additional enhancements in 2025. According to the Energy Information Administration, a government agency, solar power is projected to surpass coal as the primary source of electricity in Texas for the entire year.

The demand in Texas is not experiencing significant growth to accommodate the surplus production, especially when considering the slower growth of wind power. Consequently, there is a need to eliminate something from the market. Up until now, the primary source has been coal, not gas. In 2017, approximately 30% of the energy consumed in Texas came from coal. This year, it might exceed 10 percent for the year, even though it dipped below in March, but if it does, it won’t be by a significant margin.

Texans have been known for their tendency to go big in everything they do, including their use of coal. However, times are changing. Last year, it consumed twice as much coal for electricity compared to any other state. The decrease in coal usage in Texas has outpaced the national average, although other states are also making significant progress.

Critics of renewable energy often claim that solar power is ineffective when the sun is not shining. However, it is worth noting that Texas is currently at the forefront of battery installation in the United States. Actually, it’s going above and beyond. When it comes to solar, Texas and America as a whole lag significantly behind China in absolute terms and many countries on a per capita basis. However, when it comes to large-scale battery systems that can store surplus energy during the day and discharge it in the evening, Texas is at the forefront of global innovation.

In a recent report, it was stated that Texas currently has 5.2 GW of operational battery storage, with projections indicating that this number will increase to 10.9 GW by the end of the year. Solar power will ensure that the lights stay on long into the night.

Renewable energy has faced opposition for years from skeptics who doubted its viability, only to be proven wrong time and time again by its success in various locations.

One of the main factors driving the rapid growth of solar energy in Texas, despite the challenges posed by a government that is not particularly supportive of renewable power, is its significantly lower cost compared to other alternatives. If that’s true in Texas, the largest source of fossil gas in the United States, it’s likely that other places will soon follow suit with the energy revolution.

Researchers at Stanford University have introduced a novel frequency comb, a highly accurate measurement tool. This device exhibits distinctive characteristics such as its compact size, great energy efficiency, and remarkable accuracy. Through ongoing advancements, this revolutionary “microcomb,”  as outlined in a paper published in Nature, has the potential to serve as the foundation for widespread implementation of these devices in common electronic gadgets.

Frequency combs are laser devices designed to produce lines of light that are uniformly distributed, resembling the teeth of a comb or, more accurately, the tick marks on a ruler. Over the course of around 25 years, these “rulers for light” have brought about significant advancements in several fields of precise measurement, ranging from timekeeping to molecule detection through spectroscopy. However, due to the need for huge, expensive, and energy-intensive equipment, the usage of frequency combs has primarily been restricted to laboratory environments.

The researchers found a solution to these problems by combining two distinct methods for reducing the size of frequency combs onto a single, readily manufactured, microchip-style platform. The researchers anticipate a range of uses for their adaptable technology, including the development of sophisticated handheld medical diagnostic gadgets and the implementation of ubiquitous greenhouse gas monitoring sensors.

According to Hubert Stokowski, a postdoctoral scholar in the laboratory of Amir Safavi-Naeini and the primary author of the paper, the design of our frequency comb incorporates the most advantageous aspects of emerging microcomb technology within a single device. “Our new frequency microcomb has the potential to be scaled up for compact, low-power, and cost-effective devices that can be deployed in virtually any location.”

Safavi-Naeini, an associate professor in the Department of Applied Physics at Stanford’s School of Humanities and Sciences and senior author of the study, expressed great enthusiasm regarding the recently showcased microcomb technology. This technology has shown promise in developing innovative precision sensors that are compact and highly efficient, potentially suitable for integration into mobile devices in the future.

The process of manipulating light
An Integrated Frequency-Modulated Optical Parametric Oscillator, commonly referred to as FM-OPO, is a novel device.

The tool’s intricate nomenclature suggests that it integrates two methodologies for generating the spectrum of unique frequencies, or hues of light, that comprise a frequency comb. One approach, known as optical parametric oscillation, entails the reflection of laser light beams within a crystal medium, resulting in the formation of coherent and stable wave pulses. The second method uses laser light to enter a cavity, then modifies the phase of the light. This modulation is accomplished by applying radio-frequency signals to the device, resulting in the generation of frequency repetitions that function as light pulses.

The utilization of these two microcomb methods has been limited due to their inherent limitations. The aforementioned concerns encompass energy inefficiency, restricted capacity to modify optical parameters, and inferior comb “optical bandwidth” characterized by the gradual fading of comb-like lines as the distance from the comb’s center rises.

The researchers adopted a novel method to address the difficulty by focusing on a very promising optical circuit platform utilizing thin film lithium niobate as a material. The material possesses favorable characteristics in comparison to silicon, which is the prevailing material in the industry. Two advantageous characteristics of this material are its “nonlinearity,” which enables the interaction of light beams of different hues to produce new colors or wavelengths, and its ability to transmit a wide variety of light wavelengths.

The components of the new frequency comb were fabricated by the researchers through the utilization of integrated lithium niobate photonics. These technologies for controlling light are based on advancements made in the well-established field of silicon photonics, which focuses on the production of optical and electronic integrated circuits on silicon microchips. Both lithium niobate and silicon photonics have built upon the semiconductors used in traditional computer processors, which originated in the 1950s.

According to Safavi-Naeini, lithium niobate possesses distinct characteristics that are not present in silicon, rendering it indispensable for the fabrication of our microcomb device.

Remarkably exceptional performance
Subsequently, the researchers integrated components from optical parametric amplification and phase modulation methodologies. The researchers held specific performance expectations about the new frequency comb system on lithium niobate chips; nonetheless, the observed outcomes beyond their initial expectations.

In general, the comb generated a consistent output instead of brief pulses, allowing the researchers to decrease the necessary input power by roughly ten times. The device also produced a comb that was comfortably flat, indicating that the comb lines located further away from the center of the spectrum did not diminish in intensity. This characteristic enhances the accuracy and applicability of the device in many measurement applications.

Safavi-Naeini expressed astonishment at the comb’s unexpected nature. “Despite our initial intuition that we would observe comb-like behaviors, our intention was not to create a comb of this exact nature. It took us several months to create the simulations and theory that elucidated its primary characteristics.”

In order to get additional understanding of their surpassing device, the researchers sought the expertise of Martin Fejer, who holds the esteemed positions of J. G. Jackson and C. J. Wood Professor of Physics, as well as a professor of applied physics at Stanford University. Fejer, in collaboration with his colleagues at Stanford University, has made significant contributions to the advancement of contemporary thin film lithium niobate photonics technologies and the comprehension of the crystal characteristics of this material.

Fejer (year) established a significant correlation between the fundamental physical principles that underlie the microcomb and the concepts explored in scientific literature during the 1970s. This connection is particularly relevant to the ideas put forth by Stephen Harris, a retired professor of applied physics and electrical engineering at Stanford University.

With additional refinement, the novel microcombs may be easily produced at traditional microchip foundries and have numerous practical uses, including sensing, spectroscopy, medical diagnostics, fiber-optic communications, and wearable health-monitoring systems.

“Our microchip has the capability to be integrated into any device, and the overall size of the device is contingent upon the size of the battery,” stated Stokowski. “The technology we have showcased has the capability to be integrated into a compact personal device, comparable in size to a phone or even smaller, and can be utilized for various practical functions.”